The Net Domestic Products (NDP) Equals The Gross Dmestic Product (GDP) Essay Example for Free

The Net Domestic Products (NDP) Equals The Gross Dmestic Product (GDP) Essay The net domestic product (NDP) equals the gross domestic product (GDP) minus depreciation on a countrys capital goods. Net domestic product accounts for capital that has been consumed over the year in the form of housing, vehicle, or machinery deterioration. The depreciation accounted for is often referred to as capital consumption allowance and represents the amount of capital that would be needed to replace those depreciated assets. If the country is not able to replace the capital stock lost through depreciation, then GDP will fall. In addition, a growing gap between GDP and NDP indicates increasing obsolescence of capital goods, while a narrowing gap means that the condition of capital stock in the country is improving. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time. GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a countrys standard of living;[2][3] GDP per capita is not a measure of personal income (See Standard of living and GDP). Under economic theory, GDP per capita exactly equals the gross domestic income (GDI) per capita (See Gross domestic income). GDP is related to national accounts, a subject in macroeconomics. GDP is not to be confused with gross national product (GNP) which allocates production based on ownership. The University Grants Commission (UGC) of India is a statutory organisation set up by Union government in 1956, for the coordination, determination and maintenance of standards of university education. It provides recognition for universities in India, and provides funds for government-recognised universities and colleges. Prof. Ved Prakash, a noted academician and education administrator, is the Chairman of UGC, India. Its headquarters are in New Delhi, and six regional centres in Pune, Bhopal, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Guwahati and Bangalore.

Factors for Successful Behaviour Change Interventions

Factors for Successful Behaviour Change Interventions Critically assess the key elements that contribute to successful behaviour change interventions. The need for change Everyone wants a long and healthy life although some young people claim that they do not wish to be old. This is because of the negative connotations of old age. It is also a flippant opt-out of taking responsibility. The rationale behind a healthy style of living is unassailable. So why is it difficult to get people to change their ways? For many people, simply getting them to change at all is a major obstacle. As Niccolo Machiavelli observed more than 500 years ago,[1] â€Å"It must be considered that there is nothing more difficult to carry out, nor more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to handle, than to initiate a new order of things.† It is not only innate mule-like conservatism that hampers change. There are also positive attributes to the status quo. The tobacco industry has long attempted to portray smoking as cool, sophisticated and sexy. To the rational person, spending vast amounts of money to ruin your health and smell like an old ashtray cannot be cool, sophisticated or have any trace of sex appeal. Over many decades Hollywood has connived to portray smoking in a positive light and this does have at least a subliminal effect.[2] Simply giving people information about the risks of adverse lifestyles and the benefits of changing their ways is not enough. The relationship between smoking and lung cancer has been public knowledge since the report of the Royal College of Physicians on Smoking and Health in 1963 although the association was first suggested in 1950[3] and the association with other diseases in 1956.[4] There has to be a sustained approach with a solid theoretical background. Models for change The two theories that are most commonly employed in health promotion are the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) and the Health Belief Model (HBM). Both are most commonly employed to produce changes in health promotion but the TTM model can be used to produces changes in other fields including industry. Both these models focus on the decision making process of the individual. Other models include the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). All four have been reviewed by NICE.[5] Transtheoretical Model The Transtheoretical Model was devised in the 1980s. It sees five stages of action. Stage 1 is the pre-contemplative stage. It is defined as having no intention to change in the next six months. To use smoking as an example, the person may not appreciate the true level of risk. They may be aware that there is adverse publicity about tobacco. Perhaps some people around them are giving up but they have not taken it seriously enough to think of doing so themselves. Any desire to change is still at a subconscious level. Stage 2 is the contemplative level. It is defined as intention to change in the next six months although it may take longer. The people involved are aware of the benefits of changing but they are also acutely aware of the challenges. They must decide the balance between costs and benefits. Stage 3 is the preparation phase. There is intention to take action in the near future and preparation is in hand. The people involved have already taken some significant steps to prepare for the change. Action is planned for the next month or so. With regard to smoking, they may have discussed it with other people. They may have sought out support groups and discussed prescription of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) or bupropion. They may have set a date to quit. Stage 4 is action. The people involved have modified their thinking and behaviour. In this case, they have actually stopped smoking. Stage 5 is maintenance and focuses on sustaining the success. It is important to ascertain that the people involved do not relapse into the old behaviours and are confident of maintaining the new ones. They may focus on money saved, feeling healthier and enjoying food more. It is also necessary to address negative aspects such as possible weight gain. Health Belief Model The Health Belief Model is quite popular amongst healthcare professionals. It was developed in the 1950s in the USA to examine why there was a low uptake of a screening programme for tuberculosis. There are five steps: The first is perceived susceptibility. It relates to an individual’s feeling of how likely he is to suffer from a condition. It may run in the family or affect a friend. Many people seem to regard themselves as immune to certain illnesses. We all know the smoker who refuses to give up because he knows someone who smoked all of his life without any overt problem. Perceived seriousness is the next step. This is similar to susceptibility. Does the patient see lung cancer as curable? Does he see other smoking related diseases as manageable? The third step is perceived benefits and barriers. Patients weigh up the benefits against the costs of taking action. This means implication rather than financial costs. Fear of being excluded from his group of smoking friends may be a barrier. Uptake of cervical smears may be impaired by potential embarrassment. Self efficacy is step four. It is sometimes called health motivation. It describes how a person sees the ability to change behaviour. If a person thinks that he is unable to stop smoking this is a barrier. The fifth stage is cues to action. This is the trigger that initiates change. It may be an intervention from a health professional, an illness or a life event such as a new baby. Becoming pregnant can be a strong cue for women. Curtailing smoking Smoking cessation is a particularly relevant area to analyse. Smoking is the greatest avoidable contributor to ill health and premature death. Everyone knows of the dangers although perhaps they choose to underestimate them. Even young people still take up the habit. A Cochrane review found limited support for the effectiveness of multi-component interventions in the community to help prevent the uptake of smoking in young people.[6] Smoking tends to be most prevalent in deprived communities. A NICE public health guidance called â€Å"Identifying and supporting people most at risk of dying prematurely† focused mainly on smoking cessation and the provision of statins as being cost effective and clinically effective.[7] Both NICE[8] and CKS[9] have extensively reviewed the evidence and made recommendations with regard to smoking cessation. There are also plenty of Cochrane reviews.[10] NICE regards those of lower social class and pregnant women as a priority. Before the dangers of smoking were publicly known there was no difference in smoking habits between social classes. Now there is a distinct gradient[11] and it is said that smoking accounts for a significant amount of the decreased health and increased mortality through the social classes.[12] This is known as health inequalities. Key elements in changing behavior The first element of change has to be to implant in the individual’s mind that there is a need for change. With regard to smoking this may come in many ways. Public health messages often preach the wisdom of quitting. Health issues are raised whenever tax is increased and the price of cigarettes rises. This does reduce consumption.[13] Possibly milestones in life such as a 40th or 50th birthday may spur consideration of one’s health. Pregnancy is often a strong incentive to quit and both partners should do so to allow the baby a smoke free home. A Cochrane review was unimpressed at the evidence that getting both of a couple to quit together increased the success rate.[14] However, lack of evidence of efficacy and evidence of lack of efficacy are not the same and it does seem a good idea. The matter may arise during a consultation with a health professional. This may be when reviewing a directly relevant disease such as diabetes, coronary heart disease, hypertension, ast hma or COPD or it may simply be brought up as it comes to light on the health promotion template. It has been shown that if GPs simply raise the issue during a consultation this can have an effect.[15] NICE suggests that people who are not ready to quit should be asked to consider it and to seek help in the future. Some people fail to understand the concept of risk. They need it explained in terms that they can understand. There is no certainty that a smoker will die of a disease related to his habit nor that a non-smoker will have a long and healthy life. It is useful to have some simple figures. About 1 in 5 non-smokers die before 65 years old compared with 2 in 5 smokers. Half of all smokers die of a smoking related disease. If you do the National Lottery in the hope of winning the jackpot the chance of doing so is 1 in 14 million. For young people who cannot imagine being as old as 30, a different approach is needed. Smoking accelerates the aging process in arteries, in the lungs, in bones and in the skin. For those who fear old age, they are bringing it on. Money, fitness and smelling fresh are also positive attributes. Nicotine is highly addictive.[16] There are other components to the urge. There is the ritual of lighting up and something to do with the hands as well as the image. All these must be addressed to help the individual to cope. Many people find it helpful to set a date to quit. This allows for some counselling before the event and for such matters as NRT or bupropion to be discussed.[17] The forum in which this is done may well be a smoking cessation clinic within primary care. It is usually nurse led. There may be one-to-one counselling but groups may also be helpful.[18] The members give each other mutual support and tips for how to cope. Having brought the person to the point of quitting it is important to give support through the potentially difficult time ahead. In the early days motivation is high. This must be sustained. Congratulate the person on the achievement. Make him feel good about himself. Reinforce the positive aspects of quitting. Some people collect the money that they would have spent on tobacco each day and put it towards their holiday. NRT can give a slow release background level of nicotine in the blood to help ameliorate withdrawal. It is very important that the individual does not smoke. Inhalation of nicotine gives a rapid surge and this surge contributes greatly to the addictive mechanism. Some people test that their patients have been abstinent by using a carbon monoxide meter.[19] Carbon monoxide is present in tobacco smoke and it binds to haemoglobin with 210 times the affinity of oxygen. Therefore, carbon monoxide is released slowly for a while after smoking. At what stage has a person successfully quit? Is it after a week, a month or 6 months? There is a joke that goes, â€Å"Giving up smoking is easy. I’ve done it many times.† This emphasises the great problem of recidivism. It is a problem with smoking, alcohol and drug abuse. Those who counsel drug addicts and alcoholics continue for a long time after abstention to ascertain that it continues. Alcoholics Anonymous will invite people to their meetings even years after they last had a drink. They know how precarious the position is. People who stopped smoking may restart 6 months, a year or even a couple of years after they quit. It is often said that ex-smokers are the most intolerant of the smell of tobacco smoke and this is good. People may choose to start again in times of stress or crisis. A typical scenario is when out drinking. Smokers often try to undermine those who have successfully quit. Perhaps they emphasise their own inadequacy. â€Å"Go on. Just have one. It will do you good!† are the sort of thing that alleged friends say. In the words of Alcoholics Anonymous, â€Å"One is too many and 100 is not enough.† One night out drinking can lead to complete reversion. This is less likely to happen now that smoking in pubs and bars is illegal but it is still a risk and should be discussed in counselling. Forewarned is forearmed. Reflection on learning in health promotion It is easy enough to read and learn the theories of health promotion but putting them into practice is another matter. There will always be surprises and there will always be areas to learn. No isolated incident comes to mind but there are a number of issues that have emerged with accumulated experience. Any reasonable person will look at the health issues involved and will conclude that the healthy way of life is the logical option. This applies particularly to not smoking. However, not everyone is reasonable and this includes highly educated people. Matters that are not much emphasised in health promotion advice and the literature are peer pressure and denial. It used to be said that the prevalence of smoking was higher amongst nurses at the completion of their training than at the start although the true incidence of smoking amongst nurses is uncertain.[20] There is no doubt that peer pressure within a school of nursing is high. Stress is also given as a reason for smoking.[21] However, stress is a subjective experience and it may be used as an excuse to conform to peer pressure. Practice what you preach is a common proverb. An obese healthcare professional who advises weight loss or one who advises cessation of smoking whilst be known to indulge personally, lacks credibility. However, the â€Å"sinner† is also less likely to attempt health promotion.[22] Nurses who smoke are less likely to believe the compelling arguments about the dangers of smoking.[23] This is unlikely to represent an objective scepticism about the evidence but simply denial. If all this applies to nurses, it is unsurprising to find that it is at least as true when dealing with patients. People have to be ready to change. The mere noting of the fact that a patient smokes and the raising of eyebrows is another cue for it to sink in. There is no point in trying to pressurise the person who is not yet ready but leave an invitation to return when the time is right. What makes a person believe? It is not the level of evidence. People will find all sorts of excuses to doubt the overwhelming evidence about smoking or to pretend that it does not apply to them. On the other hand it seems much easier to convince people that the MMR vaccine causes autism when there is not a shred of evidence to support the allegation.[24] The convenience of a belief is important. We must lead by example. The â€Å"sinner† as a â€Å"preacher† is unconvincing although the reformed â€Å"sinner† may be more credible. It is important not to appear as sanctimonious with a â€Å"holier than thou† attitude. We need to show empathy with those we try to help. This applies not just to the physical addiction to nicotine but to the demands of peer pressure. The latter is especially important for young people. It is very easy for the non-smoker to see only negative images of smoking. Ask the patient to make a list of all the good things about smoking and all the bad things about it. A similar technique is used when counselling drug abusers. There must be something positive about taking drugs or no one would do it. Similarly, there are positive aspects to smoking. This shows that there is empathy towards the positive aspects. It also allows the patient to see the balance and to believe that he is making his own decision. He is not being coerced or bullied. It is also important to be realistic about the negative attributes of smoking cessation. Honesty gives credibility. It is often not so much the nicotine addiction that is a problem. This wanes with time. It is the gain in weight.[25] Weight gain is much more visible than damage to lungs or arteries. Many teenage girls say that they smoke to aid weight control. In fact, starting to smoke as a teenager probably does not help at all whilst the later in life that smoking is stopped the more marked weight gain is likely to be. Exercise rather than smoking is much healthier and much more effective. Nicotine has a nauseating effect and so when it is withdrawn there is likely to be increased appetite. Food now tastes better and some people suck sweets to occupy their mouth. It is important to discuss the matter. Weight gain is bad for health but unless the gain is enormous the benefit of smoking cessation will greatly outweigh the dangers of weight gain. If the patient decides to start smoki ng again the result will be a fat smoker. The weight will not melt away. Health promotion is a very personal matter. It requires a relationship on a one-to-one basis. It requires trust and respect. The health promoter must be seen as an honest broker rather than an evangelist. This requires empathy and it requires respect of the patient too. It is an important and difficult decision and he needs help and support. 1 [1] Niccolo Machiavelli. The Prince. 1532. Translator: W. K. Marriott http://www.sonshi.com/machiavelli.html [2] Tickle JJ, Sargent JD, Dalton MA, Beach ML, Heatherton TF. Favourite movie stars, their tobacco use in contemporary movies, and its association with adolescent smoking. Tob Control. 2001 Mar;10(1):16-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11226355 [3] Doll R, Hill AB. Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report. Br Med J. 1950 Sep 30;2(4682):739-48. [4] Doll R, Hill AB. Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking; a second report on the mortality of British doctors. Br Med J. 1956 Nov 10;2(5001):1071-81. [5] Behaviour change: Taylor et al models review. NICE 2006. http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/Behaviour_Change-Taylor_et_al-models_review_tables_appendices.pdf [6] Sowden A, Stead L. Community interventions for preventing smoking in young people. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD001291. http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001291.html [7] NICE. PH15 Identifying and supporting people most at risk of dying prematurely: guidance. September 2008. http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/PH015Guidance.pdf [8] NICE. Smoking cessation. March 2006 http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/index.jsp?action=byIDo=11375 [9] CKS Library. Smoking cessation. 2007. http://www.cks.library.nhs.uk/smoking_cessation [10] Cochrane Collaboration. http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/index.htm [11] Jefferis BJ, Power C, Graham H, Manor O. Changing social gradients in cigarette smoking and cessation over two decades of adult follow-up in a British birth cohort. J Public Health (Oxf). 2004 Mar;26(1):13-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15044567 [12] Jha P, Peto R, Zatonski W, Boreham J, Jarvis MJ, Lopez AD. Social inequalities in male mortality, and in male mortality from smoking: indirect estimation from national death rates in England and Wales, Poland, and North America. Lancet. 2006 Jul 29;368(9533):367-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11226355 [13] Leverett M, Ashe M, Gerard S, Jenson J, Woollery T. Tobacco use: the impact of prices. J Law Med Ethics. 2002 Fall;30(3 Suppl):88-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12508509 [14] Park E-W, Schultz JK, Tudiver F, Campbell T, Becker L. Enhancing partner support to improve smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD002928. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002928.pub2. http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002928/frame.html [15] Smoking cessation guidelines for health professionals: an update. Health Education Authority. West R, McNeill A, Raw M. Thorax. 2000 Dec;55(12):987-99. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmedpubmedid=11083883 [16] Russell MA. The nicotine addiction trap: a 40-year sentence for four cigarettes. Br J Addict. 1990 Feb;85(2):293-300. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2180512 [17] Guidance on the use of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and bupropion for smoking cessation. NICE technology appraisal no. 39 (2002). www.nice.org.uk/TA039 [18] Stead LF, Lancaster T. Group behaviour therapy programmes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD001007. http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001007.html [19] Middleton ET, Morice AH. Breath carbon monoxide as an indication of smoking habit. Chest. 2000 Mar;117(3):758-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10713003 [20] The incidence of smoking amongst nurses: a review of the literature. Rowe K, Clark JM. J Adv Nurs. 2000 May;31(5):1046-53. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10840237 [21] Rowe K, Macleod Clark J. Why nurses smoke: a review of the literature. Int J Nurs Stud. 2000 Apr;37(2):173-81 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10684959 [22] McKenna H, Slater P, McCance T, Bunting B, Spiers A, McElwee G. Qualified nurses smoking prevalence: their reasons for smoking and desire to quit. J Adv Nurs..2001 Sep;35(5):769-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11529979 [23] The effect of training on knowledge and opinion about smoking amongst nurses and student teachers. Elkind AK. J Adv Nurs. 1988 Jan;13(1):57-69. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3372886 [24] Bandolier Extra. MMR vaccination and autism. http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/Extraforbando/MMRextra.pdf [25] Filozof C, Fernà ¡ndez Pinilla MC, Fernà ¡ndez-Cruz A. Smoking cessation and weight gain. Obes Rev. 2004 May;5(2):95-103. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15086863

Hamartia in Oedipus the King :: Greek Tragedy Tragedies Oedipus Essays

Hamartia in Oedipus the King According to Aristotle, the tragic hero is impeded by a distinguishable characteristic or character trait which leads to his ultimate demise. This trait is known as hamartia, or the "tragic flaw." This characteristic is said to not only lead to the hero's demise but may also enable the reader to sympathize with the character. So it follows that in Oedipus the King, a Greek tragedy, the tragic hero Oedipus should have some sort of flaw. However, after close examination of the text, no distinguishable "flaw" is revealed. Although Oedipus appears to have many "flaws" on the surface, namely his poor temperament, carelessness, curiosity and pride, close examination of the text reveals that he has many seemingly flawed characteristics that are not only justifiable but in some cases to be expected. One might expect that a quick and even murderous temper would be considered a serious impediment to Oedipus. However, he is quite justified in his rage against Creon and Tiresias, and he has good reasons to suspect them of plotting against him. From the view point of Oedipus, he has just discovered that the antecedent king Laius was savagely murdered along with the members of his entourage. Furthermore the murder has yet to be solved many years later, and the gods have placed a plague on his city until the murderer(s) is apprehended and punished. After learning of the death of Laius, Oedipus concludes that the murderer is "a thief, so daring, so wild, he'd kill a king? [It's] impossible, unless conspirators paid him off in Thebes" (140-142). Creon concurs that this thought had also crossed his mind. So with this evidence, it is easy to see why Oedipus is distrustful of his own peers. Maybe the actual killing of Laius and his four servants is an extreme display of Oedipus' murderous temperament. While it may seem a bit extreme in hindsight, at the time of the incident his actions are totally justifiable. Oedipus describes the incident as thus: as he was"making [his] way toward this triple crossroad [he] began to see a herald, then a brace of colts drawing a wagon, and mounted on the bench . . . a man, just as [Jocasta] described [Laius], coming face-to-face, and the one in the lead and the old man himself [was] about to thrust [him] off the road-brute force - and the one shouldering [him] aside, the driver, [he] struck [him] in anger - and the old man, watching [Oedipus] coming up along his wheels - he brings down his prod, two prongs straight at [his] head"(884-893).

Tour de France Drug Abuse Essay -- Substance Abuse Essays

The question of drug use among athletes in what was previously considered by the unknowing public to be a rather pristine sport, cycling, is important in that it will affect all future Tours and will place them and the athletes under scrutiny. To begin with, in Europe until the 1998 scandal occurred, despite a few exceptions, cycling was considered a drug free sport. The 1998 drug scandal tarnished the Tour de France and the reputation and image of other sports. The media response to the scandal took differing positions on what should be done next to clean up cycling. The scandal also affected advertisements, sales, and without question the 1999 Tour and Lance Armstrong. Since even the most naà ¯ve fan no longer trusts the cyclists, drug-testing procedures have been instituted. Also, the question now arises regarding medications used by seriously ill cyclists. Certainly, future Tours will be significantly affected. The Union Cycliste Internationale and other sports officials are left with several burning questions; do they seek a better testing system? Clearly, they must protect athletes and the image of sports even though it is costly. Do they perform uniform versus random drug tests? Both are necessary to keep athletes and trainers accountable. In fact, the 1999 Tour promoted both forms of testing (Fife 208). If they do random tests, how do they enforce them? On this point, committees and sports federations are still debating. For years cycling, a grueling, yet glamorous sport in Europe, has been fighting drug use and abuse. Despite a few exceptions, cycling had the reputation, in Europe and in France, of being a clean, pure sport, compared to others, until the 1998 scandal occurred. The question of drug use among athletes in what was previously considered by the unknowing public to be a rather pristine sport, cycling, is important in that it will affect all future Tours and will place them and the athletes under scrutiny. A Clean Reputation: The History of Drugs in the â€Å"Tour de France† In 1967, Tommy Simpson, a British cyclist, died during the Tour de France because of the amphetamines that he took. Succeeding years brought embarrassments: In 1978, the Belgian Michel Pollentier was suspended while leading the Tour de France after he was caught concealing a clean urine sample to trick testers. Furthermore, in 1988, the Spaniard Pedro Delgado won the T... ...cess Story: Tour de Lance; Armstrong’s miraculous comeback from cancer to a Tour victory is worthy of an exclamation point, not a question mark.† The Los Angeles Times; Los Angeles, Calif.; 26 Jul. 1999: 1. Lemonick, Michael D. â€Å"Le Tour des drugs.† Time; New York; Aug 10, 1998: 76. MacAuley, Domhnall. â€Å"Drugs in Sport.† BMJ: British Medical Journal, 313.7051, 7/27/96, 211. Online. EBSCOhost. 16 Nov. 1999. http://www.EBSCOhost.com. Neff, Craig. â€Å"Drug sweep.† Sports Illustrated; New York, 9 Aug. 1999: 71 Pelkey, Charles ed. â€Å"Etxebarria takes Pau; Armstrong answers drug charge.† Velo-News, 21 July 1999. Phillips, Ian. â€Å"Armstrong Extends Tour Lead U.S. Star Bristles at French Media’s Drug Innuendos.† Seattle Post- Intelligencer; Seattle, Wash.; 15 Jul. 1999: E2. Velo-News. The sensational 1998 Tour de France: Conquests and Crisis. Boulder, Colorado: VeloPress, December, 1998. â€Å"Virenque admits to seeking drugs.† Velo-News Interactive. Velo-News; 11 May 1999. â€Å"Virenque released after admission.† Velo-News Interactive. Velo-News, 11 May 1999. Wilson, Stephen. â€Å"Doping Incidents Shake Sports from Swimming to Track & Field.† Seattle Post- Intelligencer, Seattle, Wash.,.1 Aug. 1998: E6.

Non-Cognitivists vs. Moral Realism

Cognitive sentences are those that are dependent to facts and readily have or consist of truth values, such as true and false. Non-Cognitive Sentences constitutes statements which are independent of facts and are cannot be assumed to have a truth value. In this regards, statements such as â€Å"Girelle is stands about five feet and five inches tall† and â€Å"the vase is red† are statements which falls under the Cognitive division. While statements like â€Å"keep quiet† and â€Å"you must not lie† corresponds to Non-cognitive statements.(Marturano 2006, 1)According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy, Non-cognitive holds that moral properties otherwise known as moral facts do not exist. This means that moral statements are statements that can neither be true or false or simply these statements do not contain any truth condition. Moral sentiments are merely â€Å"approval or disapproval† expressions more akin to wishes and aspirations that ar e seldom associated with emotions than to cognitive â€Å"state of mind† such as beliefs or ideas. Moral Realism on the other hand holds that moral statements were actually reports of factual actions or ideas that are always true or real or existing. ( Sayre-McCord 2005, 1)Non-cognitivist argues that moral statements have no truth conditions in such case that their predicate was merely moral utterances or sentiments that neither have truth or falsity. It does not tell anything about its subject that could prove its truthfulness. In a sense, moral sentiments are meaningless and remain to be mere expressions. They further argue that moral statements were emotive, prescriptive and motivational that cannot be classified as either true or false (Ayer 1936, 28-55) .Non-moral statements on the other hand can express beliefs and ideas that can be evaluated as either true or false (Blackburn 1984, 12-25).Thus the Non-Cognitivist holds that since moral claims are non-cognitive statemen ts, they do not contain any descriptive sentence and are therefore not describing anything at all which means that they do not contain factual statements and are not asserting anything.(Railton 1986, 4-6)The Non-cognitivist believes that normative claims are not valid of any logic since they cannot be true or false. According to Ayer, as quoted in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, â€Å"ethical claims are comprised of pseudo concepts which merely convey commands or feelings and do not contain any meaning (Marturano 2006, 1). Ethical statements remains important or significant because it is being use to persuade other people most specifically the receiver to perform or act in a certain way. In such case, ethical claims can be debated or can cause several disagreements and agreements but it can never comprise a logical understanding or reach any rational conclusion because normative claims cannot express the truth value of the statement. Thus, logical laws or basic rules of lo gic are inapplicable to moral statements (Hooker 1996, 3-5).By being a non-cognitivist, a person can deal with more relevant questions concerning reality. For instance, instead of dealing with the question of truthfulness of the statement â€Å"abortion should not be permissible†, people would be more focused on assessing the claim with respect to its effect or to its general utility. If abortion is done what would be its effect, thus basing the judgment on the factual outcome and not on mere assumption. To make this point clearer, consider the statement â€Å"genocide is wrong†, since it does not express any truth value, its assessment or its continuation would depend on its result.Non-cognitivism, by removing the truth value of normative statements has ended the dispute regarding the reality of an objective moral code or morality. This paved the way for moral relativism which favors the variation of moral codes in the different parts of the worlds at different times. This results to more respect to different cultures and traditions across national and ethnic boundaries.By denoting that moral statements are merely expression of approval/disapproval or sentiments, the non-cognitivist have also succeed in emphasizing the reason why there have been different reactions among different people regarding a certain moral issue. The varying reason as to why and how people view things differently. It also shows that moral statements cannot be true or false, thus they cannot be use to persuade other people in doing this or that.Moral realism on the other hand purports that moral statements is either true or false. The moral claim, â€Å"abortion is wrong† is either true or false. If this will be the case, there would be fixed moral codes that should apply to everyone else or at least every rational person in the planet. Yet, the relativity and subjectivity of moral statements seems to contradict the moral realist position because in different countr ies there were differing view regarding this matter and this is something that is prevalent in the reality in which we lived in. People does not agree on the same moral issue, most often they would argue differently depending on their position, biases, outlook, experiences and so on. The reason why I agree that â€Å"abortion is wrong† would be very different from your or his or her reason.In moral realism, people would continue to argue and debate over claims fruitlessly. In the end they would come up with a conclusion that is not far from being the decision of the â€Å"majority†. If moral realism are right in asserting that moral statements expresses truth value, then what people, specially influential and powerful ones would do is to persuade other people into believing that their statement is the right and whatever that contradicts their statement and purpose are wrong.Moral realism maintains that there can be â€Å"objective moral values† which contradicts the Non-cognitivist claims. However, moral realist failed to account what constitute the objective moral facts (Shafer-Landau 2005). They argued that â€Å"death penalty is wrong† can be accounted as either true or false simply because they believed that it is the same as any cognitive statement such as â€Å"it is dark†. Moral realist cannot prove that â€Å"death penalty is wrong is in fact true† for it differs from people’s opinion, perspectives and desire. There is no factual evidence that could actually prove that it is true (Stevenson1944, 15). The reality of the existence of moral facts is inaccessible to scientific inquiry and cannot be observed directly through our senses without appeal to our emotions, sentiments or feelings.References:Ayer, A. J. 1936. Language, Truth and Logic. London: GollanczBlackburn, S. 1984.   Spreading the Word. Oxford: ClarendonHare R. M. 1997. Sorting Out Ethics. Oxford: O.U.P.Hooker, Brad. 1996. Truth In Ethics. Ox ford.Kim, Shin. 2006. Moral Realism. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Marturano, Anotonio. 2006. Non-Cognitivism in Ethics. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.  Railton, Peter. 1986. Moral Realism: The Philosophical Review. Vol. 95, No. 2 (Apr.,), pp. 163-207Sayre-McCord, Geoff. 2005. Moral Realism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved on September 20, 2007. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-cognitivism/  Shafer-Landau, Russ. June 15, 2005. Moral Realism: A Defense.   USA: Oxford University PressStevenson, C.L. 1944. Ethics and Language. New Haven: Yale U.P

Dr. Albert Ellis Essay

Dr. Albert Ellis became known for setting frontiers in the field of psychology. He questioned many age-old beliefs throughout his career and tried to prove each of them with theories. His expertise expounded on human sexuality, psychoanalysis, ad cognitive behavioral psychotherapy. The focus that he gave in sexology and sexuality led to many publications and teachings accountable to him. It is not surprising so that he subscribed to Freudian ideologies. Among his more popular studies was the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy or REBT. REBT focused on the role of the mind in directing emotions. It specified that the mindset of people is what transforms into emotions. In return, these reactions become basis for future feelings and actions. Ellis assumed with his theories that psychology patients will get better faster and the treatments will be easier if they cooperate and have a change of mind as most of what makes negative emotions are wrong assumptions. By stopping oneself from making demands that cannot be easily satisfied and by being realistic, negative emotions and most problems can be resolved. This focus on cognitive behavior expounded many earlier studies on the area which lacked the focus it needed. Thus, Ellis was dubbed as the Most Influential Psychologist by psychologists and counselors in America and Europe. (Dr. Albert Ellis, 2006) In his death he left a legacy of intelligence. This intelligence helped and will continue to help millions of individuals who remain bothered by life issues that are mainly caused by wrong perceptions. Thus, this legacy was not for Ellis’ alone but for all practitioners and patients who will benefit in his work. INTRODUCTION As shown in many biographies and stories made out of the life of Dr. Albert Ellis, it was evident that a powerful influence was left to him by Freudian ideologies. He had many works that referred most especially to the human sexuality. In his lifetime, he was also able to maintain two consecutive marriages which definitely peppered reality into his many works and theories on sexology. (A brief biography of Dr. Albert Ellis, 2005) As Freud would have it he was also into psychoanalysis. He had a different way of studying the human mind—how it functions and how other bodily functions relate to it. Of his many works sexuality and psychoanalysis were the focal point of most and of which he became better known. (A brief biography of Dr. Albert Ellis, 2005) It’s all in the mind We perceive pain only when we already know that an occurrence or action causes pain. We become sad only when we know that something is saddening. These negative thoughts and feelings come from the mind. The mind is very powerful and it can dictate the whole body on how to behave. It can likewise tell the mind how to think and perceive things. Thus, how a person thinks affects how he feels. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy was created by Ellis in 1955. The theory found its way to a treatment method. It became possible with the thought that patients will get better faster if they change their way of thinking. The mind, it says, can cure. (Albert Ellis and Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, 2006) For instance, a patient of depression can get out from his bouts by going to the cause of his depression and changing his reaction about it. Besides, depression as Ellis taught happens when the person convinces himself that the state of his person is not what it should be and rather should be another. These irrational idealisms cause worries and frustrations which leads to depression. (REBT by Dr. Albert Ellis, n. d. ) In concurrence, a neurotic, Ellis specifies, can get out of his neuroses by stopping it. Thus, Ellis promotes that the mind dictates what the body’s state will be especially when it comes to emotions. Ellis’ theory stresses that reactions to a certain event, state, or occurrence identifies the overall feeling of a person towards it. (REBT by Dr. Albert Ellis, n. d. ) Therefore, a person can alter his view of it by either changing the way in which he perceives it or convincing him to do so. When a person successfully does this, it will be easier for him to overcome his negative feelings and be more optimistic. Optimism then leads to a better outlook in life. Ellis psychology: Different psychology In its prime, Ellis’ schools of thought differed from the others at that it puts emphasis on different factors that are otherwise overlooked by other theories. Its combination of highlight points allowed these overlooked factors to be studied through this single theory. These factors include emphasis on early childhood, deep philosophical change and scientific thinking. (REBT by Dr. Albert Ellis, n. d. ) While these factors have been studied long before Ellis’ time, it was only through the focus that Ellis gave that the factors were brought together in a homogenous fashion yet for the resolution of a single objective. The objective here is to change the way of the pessimistic mind and create a mindset that will make it easy for a person to accept events that come his way and understand how to deal with them. The theory states that events which happen during the early childhood years drastically affect the state of mind of a person. The more negative these years were, the more pessimistic the person will likely get. Deep philosophical change is another factor. This is the one which changes the mindset of the person. By changing a person’s philosophy in life he can become at peace with his self and the things that happen to him. In changing his life’s philosophy a person may have to deal into scientific thinking as well. Here there will be no vague inexplicable thoughts and idealisms but rather specifics that can be explained and help the person understand himself and his ordeals. These three measures spell the difference between self-defeat and self-winning. The self can only be won by being rational. By these one explains to himself and understands that everything happens (or do not happen) for a reason. To be rational is to be realistic. When one leaves in a too idealistic or fantasy world is to deny oneself of the opportunity to win over situations. Being rational is a pre-requisite to being free, happy, and optimistic. The ABC and the Musts Ellis’ theory also developed the three ABCs which pose as the blueprint of emotions. The three includes the start of things (A), the beliefs of the person about the thing (B), and the reaction of the person about the thing (C). According to the process, every person’s ordeal has a beginning. It may be from the immediate time or from a distant past. It may be from his immediate surrounding or from a past neighborhood or workplace. Whenever or wherever that beginning may be, the fact is that there is a start. (What is REBT? , 2006) From the beginning of a situation a person starts to associate with it his personal beliefs and the beliefs that he form in concurrence to outside factors such as family and friends. These beliefs are developed from many different things, and so it is guaranteed that two persons under the same situation may have differing beliefs toward it. In connection, these beliefs affect the reaction that the person gives into the situation. As an example, a person who wants to get into a certain job position into a company he so much dreams of may feel very positive about applying, taking the application tests, and attending the interviews. He prepares for it and makes sure nothing comes between him and his dream of getting his dream job; and then he fails. He did not get the job. This person will most likely believe that he does not deserve the failure because he prepared so much for everything. This belief will lead to a reaction of anger and resentment. But when following the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, he will put off the grief and focus on future things that he can do—apply in other companies or improve on himself to take on the opportunity of re-application. This is the essence of REBT. The negative feelings that become reactions are often brought about by Musts. These are the assumed expectations of a person that when he fails to achieve can greatly give him negative thoughts and feelings. A person always feel he must do well and win the approval of others, that other people must be fair, kind, and true to him, that he must get what he wants when he want it. This spoiled-brat syndrome often leads to failed expectations. (What is REBT? , 2006) Getting away from thoughts that include these Musts allow one to be realistic. Sources say that these unrealistic demands when given up will solve 80% of a person’s problems. (What is REBT? Introduction, explanation, and application, 2007) This highlights that problems arise from the mindset of a person. A problem becomes so if the person perceives that this thing is really a crisis and so if he will think that it is not a dilemma then it will not pose itself as a predicament. Benefits of rational thinking Being realistic, people say, will save one from the hurts of disillusionment and broken fantasies. The same works with the theories presented by Ellis. Rational thinking bases itself on reality. Thus, it allows a person to be bound with facts. As it helps one overcome tribulations, it promotes a more positive self and mindset. Apart from this, there are other advantages brought about by Ellis’ theory. There is the accomplishment of goals, creation of manageable emotions, and promotion of behavior that allows survival. First, REBT allows one to achieve his goals and purposes. When a person has goals and purposes in life it may be overshadowed by negative feelings and wrong beliefs and reactions. Rational thinking can take these away. Being in touch with reality will keep one collected. Secondly, reality creates emotions that one can handle. Because he perceives things realistically, everything that he may experience will be almost expected. Thus the outpour of emotions will be controllable. Of course, the emotions cannot be stopped. Yet, he will be able ti handle them accordingly and still think clear to be on top of the situation. Lastly, being in touch with reality helps one behave in ways that promote aims and survival. The person who follows Ellis’ school of thought have clear aims in life and the enthusiasm to achieve them They are also survivors. They do not know how to quit because they know that there are other things that they are worth for. (What is REBT? Introduction, explanation, and application, 2007) The impact Dr. Albert Ellis’ works paved the way to modern thoughts in psychology which were specific and focused. It also set a new era for psychological therapy and views on cognitive behavior. Apart from these works on emotive behavioral therapy, Ellis also had studies on sexuality that also influenced that field of study. Freud’s work was on his armament, but he made progress by deriving from the scholar inspiration for fresh studies rather than repetition of old studies. With the works of Dr. Ellis studies on emotive behavior therapy became prominently based on the mindset of the person. Because the theory was very consistent to the results on many studies, many counselors subscribed to the idea and used it to treat their patients. It then became possible to treat patients easily because counselors had a process to follow—tracing the beginnings of the problem, modifying the beliefs of the person, and expectedly the change in his reaction. Dr. Ellis was able to think out of the box. He moved away from the generalities and devised new studies that created new methodologies for psychotherapy. This changed the way in which psychology operated. It made the work easier for doctors and patients alike. These outstanding works gave Dr. Ellis the brand for being the Most Influential Psychologist by American and European practitioners alike. (Dr. Albert Ellis, 2006) Being influential is not nomenclature alone for Dr. Ellis. He embodies the influential psychologist, with published and well-publicized breakthroughs in psychology. These influence that the doctor made helped the field of psychology propel and become what it is now. Definitely, psychology could have not been the same. CONCLUSION Psychology is a never-ending process of learning how the minds of people work. The mindset of people changes through time. It is therefore understandable why psychologists are working endlessly. This has been how Dr. Albert Ellis lived his career. The quest of Dr. Ellis to find the explanations to many of psychoanalysis’ questions wee the inspirations that he had to create studies that gave birth to sexology and emotive behavior therapy, rather old schools of thought that were given new concepts. Best of all, Dr. Ellis made his studies so thoroughly and among well-chosen populations. His works were lauded. His work saved many lives. It is evident that Ellis’ works were greatly influenced by his strong orientation of the works of Sigmund Freud. Known for thoughts and theories on human sexuality and psychoanalysis, Freud was also popular for many studies on the area. In his time, Ellis’ achieved the same level of integrity in psychological studies, albeit not the worldwide fame that Freud has achieved. However, his works were at par with that of the inspiring scholar from which he based many of his beliefs. His seriousness in his theories and studies may also be the one for which his own sexuality can be based, especially that he entered into two consecutive marriages. It will not be surprising to think that these marriages have influenced his concepts on human sexuality which in turn inspired his studies and theories. The good thing, however, is that Ellis’ confidently challenged existing ideologies, which enriched psychology. Through them, psychology has now advanced forward. Though Dr. Ellis, the mind became the cure for its own predicaments. References A brief biography of dr. albert ellis. 2005. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www. rebt. ws/albertellisbiography. html Albert Ellis and Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. 2006. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www. rebtnetwork. org/whois. html Dr. Albert Ellis. 2006. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www. rebtnetwork. org/ REBT by Dr. Albert Ellis. n. d. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www. rebt. cc/_wsn/page11. html What is REBT? 2006. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www. rebtnetwork. org/whatis. html What is REBT? Introduction, explanation, and application. 2007. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www. rebt. ws/REBT%20explained. htm

How does William Shakespeare create tension Essay

From the minute the play starts the audience are aware that the â€Å"star crossed lovers† Romeo and Juliet are going to die, this makes it clear that the play is a tragedy. A Tragedy is a traditional form of theatre where the main characters in the play die as a result of their tragic flaw, for example in the tragedy play Macbeth, Macbeth’s vaulting ambition leads him to his death. Romeo and Juliet’s flaw is the powerful love between them and it means their relationship has to be secret and this leads to Mercutio being killed by Tybalt and Romeo then killing Tybalt. The consequences of Romeo revenging Mercutios death by killing Tybalt means he is banished upon death. When the play was written ‘Romeo and Juliet’ was already a well known story but the version that William Shakespeare borrowed did not include the love theme William Shakespeare added the love theme into the story. The play Romeo and Juliet was written in 1594, and in this time women particularly were under their parents influence and there was no free choice on who you could marry. Teenage Rebellion was unthinkable because your parents would kick you out and in this time a woman was unable to get a job and with no money it would be hard to find a husband; this is why Romeo and Juliet’s marriage was secret. How a play is structured is an important way of creating tension for the audience like in Act 1 of ‘Romeo and Juliet’ it introduces the theme of love and hate between the two families Montague and Capulet. There is also a fight between the two family’s servants because they hate each other but Tybalt (Capulet) turns up and the fight becomes even bigger than before. The reason Shakespeare kills off Mercutio and Tybalt in Act 3 is that now all the action can focus on Romeo and Juliet. In the scene were Mercutio is slain, this point is often looked at as the points were the play becomes a tragedy. If Romeo hadn’t avenged Mercutios death the outcome would have been very different and Romeo and Juliet’s actions from this point are due to this scene. Having themes run throughout a play is another way of creating tension for the audience. This scene (Act3 scene 1) contains the theme of passion, when Benvolio is advising Mercutio to leave the area where the Capulet’s are  going to arrive but Mercutio is ready for a fight and is going to stay no matter what. Benvolio says ‘for now these hot-days is the mad blood stirring.’ This means that the hot weather has shortened people’s tempers including Mercutios. When Tybalt arrives and Tybalt and Mercutio start to fighting. Romeo accidentally gets in the way and Mercutio is struck by Tybalt’s sword, it is a mortal wound which kills him. As Mercutio is dying he says ‘A plague on both your houses.’ After Mercutio dies and Romeo kills Tybalt, Romeo starts crying and this is a passionate cry emphasises the way he is losing the control of his destiny and is subject to fate. This creates tension because the audience know the final outcome from the start. Shakespeare was a master of characterisation, the characters in this scene have been skilfully created previously and act exactly how the audience expect them to, based on their previous behaviour, such as at the party Mercutio is showing off, he is loud full of himself and hot tempered this shows that it is Mercutios nature to fight and not back down. Also Mercutio cannot stand Romeo’s capitulation towards the Capulet’s and this angers him even more Mercutio also says ‘O calm, dis honourable, vile, submission’ and this creates tension because Mercutio forces the fight on Tybalt. In a play which would be performed to an audience who could barely read and write, it was important for Shakespeare to include rich metaphors and poetry which would entertain and stimulate them; his language is littered with deeper meanings and puns. For example when Benvolio says for now these hot days the mad blood stirring this means that the hot weather has shortened peoples tempers and they are more likely to snap and start a fight, this line adds tension as well because there is going to be a big fight but Mercutios short snappy sentences show that he is ready to fight and it creates tension and anticipation to see Tybalt and Mercutio fight. The stage craft is a vital part of the tension in this scene where Shakespeare keeps the weather hot so it gets people irritable. Mercutio is in the mood for a fight because of the weather and he wants to cause to  cause trouble. Shakespeare makes Tybalt arrive before Romeo so he has a chance to tangle and mix with Mercutio. Shakespeare only makes the reasons why Romeo won’t fight Tybalt to make Mercutio angry about Romeo’s capitulation towards the Capulet Family. To conclude, I feel that Shakespeare created tension in this scene through Mercutios anger towards Romeo’s capitulation and his hatred for the Capulet Family. Although if Mercutio had known about Romeo and Juliet his anger would not be so great. I found the play sad because two innocent characters had to die because of their flaw which was the powerful love between them which could not be broken and I also feel that another reason Romeo and Juliet died was the feud between the two families which was ended only when there children had died.